Distributional shifts pose a significant challenge to achieving robustness in contemporary machine learning.

As patients and employers look for alternatives to pricey GLP-1 drugs, Silicon Valley startup Twin Health is using AI and wearable sensors to help people make healthier choices. Rodney Buckley has lost 100 pounds in less than a year, not by using a GLP-1 drug but with the help of a digital twin. Last March, the 55-year-old retired firefighter turned village mayor of Third Lake, Illinois, was 376 pounds. He had tried different diets over the years and would typically lose some weight but eventually gain it back. When his wife's employer started offering a program from startup Twin Health, he thought he would give it a try.

To design an efficient intervention, decision-makers need not only to estimate the total effect of the intervention, but also understand the underlying causal mechanisms driving this effect.

The decision-maker's observing policy must be timely